This article reports on theoretical and empirical research that explored the hypothesis that there is a sexual division of leadership in volunteer emergency medical service (EMS) squads. This hypothesis was tested against survey data obtained from 216 current members of nine upstate New York volunteer EMS squads. Despite several mitigating characteristics of these organizations and despite the lack of supporting statistical evidence at the aggregate level of officership, the research found statistically significant confirmation of sex bias in officer selection when leadership was disaggregated into line and staff officer positions. Medical qualifications and length of EMS squad membership were also included in the model as determinants of leadership experience. These results are discussed relative to the question of the sexual division of leadership in the overarching nonprofit and voluntary sector of the U.S. economy.

A behavioral model is developed to explain the magnitude of surplus and the division of surplus into unproductive and profit for oligopoly firms in the manufacturing sector of advanced capitalist economies. Particular attention is focused upon the determinants of interfirm, nonprice rivalry as an important component of unproductive expenditure. The explanatory models of profit and unproductive expenditure are then tested using U.S. data. Finally, the implications of these models and estimates for industry and aggregate capital accumulation are drawn.

This research compares the personal, household, and professional characteristics volunteer emergency medical service (EMS) providers in Ulster County, NY with those of the general population of this rural upstate county, using a survey instrument implemented by the author in conjunction with the 1990 U.S. Census data. A principal objective of this research was to identify the characteristics of these volunteers in order to support the recruitment and retention efforts of volunteer EMS organizations. Statistically significant deviations between these two sample populations include age distribution, maximum educational attainment, size of household, years in residence, type of employer, employing industry, occupation, household income, and commuting distance from work. Population differences for race, sex, marital status, household site, home ownership, housing costs, and in-county employment were not statistically significant. Additional data reported for the EMS volunteers include total emergency responses, active squad membership, length of service, level of medical qualifications, and intensity and nature of individual participation, age of recruitment, family involvement, tenure in the community, rates of household work participation, other volunteer activity, motivation, and receptivity to alternative incentive programs. The relevance of these data is interpreted with respect to the prospects for effective recruitment of volunteers, the level of commitment and retention of the volunteers, the degree of support which volunteers can expect from their communities, and the extent of cohesiveness and integration which volunteer EMS squads provide to their communities.

This paper merges patent citation data with data on pharmaceutical patent expirations, generic entry, and pricing to explore the effects of observable patent characteristics on off-patent and on-patnet pharmaceutical pricing. Using a sample of drug patents facing generic entry in the 1990s, I find that the price of branded drugs increased on average in the face of generic entry. Importantly, I find that the number of patent citations that a drug receives from other firms is correlated with a decrease in markup and a decrease in the duration of the markup. Conversely, self-citations are correlated with higher prices and slower decay in prices. The results indicate that patent citations may signal the degree of inter-molecule substitution. And, importantly, self-citations may indicate a degree of cumulative patenting that enables a firm to effectively extend or strengthen the original patent protection. This research takes a step forward in understanding the distinction between "positive" citations and "negative" citations related to creative destruction.

A Kaleckian model, featuring the complementarity of the public and private sectors and administered pricing of public-sector products, is developed to examine the impact of public enterprises on income distribution between the state, capital, and labor. Public-sector mark-up and relative size affect the macroeconomy via both supply (private-sector good price) and demand (public and private savings, monetary expansion), and the short- and medium-term distributional effects may be contradictory. Public-sector price subsidy schemes and the cyclical properties of the private mark-up determine the direction and magnitude of these effects.

This paper presents empirical evidence on the extent to which zakat - a form of religiously-mandated charity under Islam - achieves its intended objective in Pakistan. Detailed income and expenditure data from Pakistan's Household Income and Expenditure Survey for 1987-88 are used to construct two income distributions - one containing the distribution of income which would have obtained if relevant forms of charity were not given, and one containing the distribution of income which obtains under a regime in which such charitable giving takes place. Atkinson-Kolm-Sen (AKS) ethical relative indices of income inequality are computed for Pakistan and each of its four provinces, for each of these two income distributions, and are compared over a range of parameter values. Evidence is found that zakat does redistribute from the better off to the worse-off, and so achieves some reduction in measured income inequality in Pakistan. Both intra-province and inter-province components of over-all inequality decline, though the amount of change is generally small. These conclusions are shown to be robust to a wide range of normative values the investigator may bring elect.

This chapter provides a selective review of the literature on trust and the law. We highlight the psychological and game theoretic mechanisms underpinning the role of trust in relationships with incomplete contracts. We also discuss evidence on whether behavioral trust and the strength of legal institutions act as substitutes or complements for the purposes of overcoming moral hazard.